LINGUISTICS Essays - Articles, Academic Disciplines, Linguistics

LINGUISTICS The word Linguistics' has been derived from the Latin lingua (tongue) and istics (knowledge or science). Etymologically, therefore, linguistics is the scientific language. But it is the study not of one particular language but of human language in general. It studies language as a universal and recognizable part of human behavior. It attempts to describe and analyze language. The field of linguistics comprises under-standing of the place of language in human life, the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves, and the functions it performs. So linguistics is that science which studies the origin, organization, nature and development of language descriptively, historically, comparatively and explicitly, and formulates the general rules related to language. Diachronic (historical) linguistics studies the development of language through history, through time, for example, the way in which French and Italian have evolved from Latin. Linguistics, therefore, is the science that describes and classifies languages. The linguist identifies and describes the units and patterns of the sound system, the words and morphemes, and the phrases and sentences, which is the structure of language, as completely, accurately, and economically as possible. LINGUISTIC LEVELS Linguistics levels' means the levels of language structure. There is a considerable difference among the linguisticians about the number and terminology of linguistic levels. Robert Hall (1969: 32) recommends the levels-phonology (phonemics-phonetics), morphology and syntax. R.H Robins (1971: 11) mentions phonology, grammar and semantics. Hockett (1973: 137-138) advocates the following five levels which he calls subsystems: The Grammatical System: a stock of morphemes, and the arrangements in which they occur; The Phonological System: a stock of phonemes, and the assignments in which they occur; The Morphophonemic System: the code which ties together the grammatical and the phonological system; The Phonemic System: the ways in which sequences of the phonemes are converted into sound waves by articulation of a speaker, and are decoded from the speech signal by a hearer; The Semantic System: This associates various morphemes, and arrangements in which morphemes can be put, with things situations, or kinds of things and situations. Hockett calls the first three of the above "central" subsystem, and the last two "peripheral" subsystems. Such a labeling of names, however, should not lead one to confusion. There are no basic differences about the structure of language. Such a classification is done by the linguist for the sake of convenience in the study of the subject matter, i.e. language which is a complex phenomenon. All these levels are inter-related aspects of his subject matter, quite often overlapping. Any separation or classification should not be treated as rigid or opaque. A linguist has to describe human language, and human beings do not use just one level of it at a time. There are three aspects of language activity, or three types of pattern in language, the material, the structural and the environmental leading to three separate linguistic levels-SUBSTANCE, FORM AND CONTEXT. "The substance is the raw material of language; auditory (PHONIC substance) or visual (GRAPHIC substance). The form is the organization, the internal structure, it is grammar + lexis. The context is the relationship between form and situation, which we call meaning (Semantics). The linguistic science has to explain language at all these levels. These levels are explained below: Phonics. Phonics is the study of speech processes including the anatomy, neurology and pathology of speech, the articulation, classification and perception of speech sounds. Phonetics is a pure science and need not be studied in relation to a particular language, but it has many practical applications e.g. in phonetic transcriptions, language teaching speech therapy, communications engineering. Some phoneticians consider phonetics to be outside the central core of linguistics proper, but most would include it under the heading linguistics science'. The linguistic aspects of phonetics, i.e., the study of sound systems of particular languages are part of phonology. -32385033655 The study of phonetics can be divided into three main branches, ARTICULATORY PHONETICS, the study of the movement of the speech organs in the articulation of speech, ACOUSTIC PHONETICS, the study of the physical properties of speech sounds such as frequency and amplitude in their transmission, and AUDITORY PHONETICS, the study of hearing and the perception speech sound. Laboratory Phonetics.

Harry Potter Controversy About Banning the Books

Harry Potter Controversy About Banning the Books The Harry Potter controversy has gone on, in one form or another, for years, particularly before the series ended. On one side of the Harry Potter controversy are those who say that J.K. Rowlings Harry Potter books are wonderful fantasy novels with powerful messages for kids and the ability to make even reluctant readers eager readers. On the opposing end are those who say that the Harry Potter books are evil books designed to promote an interest in the occult, since Harry Potter, the hero of the series, is a wizard. In a number of states, there have been attempts, some successful and some unsuccessful, to have the Harry Potter books banned in classrooms, and banned or under severe restrictions in school libraries. For example, in Gwinnett County, Georgia, a parent challenged the Harry Potter books on the grounds that they promoted witchcraft. When school officials ruled against her, she went to the State Board of Education. When the BOE confirmed the right of local school officials to make such decisions, she took her battle against the books to court. Although the judge ruled against her, she indicated she might continue her fight against the series. As a result of all the attempts to ban the Harry Potter books, those in favor of the series also began speaking out. kidSPEAK Speaks Out American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, the Association of American Publishers, the Association of Booksellers for Children, the Childrens Book Council, the Freedom to Read Foundation, the National Coalition Against Censorship, the National Council of Teachers of English, the PEN American Center, and the People for the American Way Foundation. What do these groups have in common? They were all sponsors of kidSPEAK!, which was initially called Muggles for Harry Potter (because in the Harry Potter series, a Muggle is a non-magical person). The organization was dedicated to helping kids with their First Amendment rights. The group was most active in the early 2000s when the Harry Potter controversy was at its height. Challenges and Support for the Harry Potter Series There have been challenges in more than a dozen states.  The Harry Potter books were number seven on the American Library Associations list of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 1990-2000, and they were number one on the ALAs Top 100 Banned/Challenged Books: 2000-2009. The End of the Series Generates New Views With the publication of the seventh and final book in the series, some people began to look back over the entire series and wonder if it might not be a Christian allegory. In his three-part article, Harry Potter: Christian Allegory or Occultist Children’s Books?  reviewer Aaron Mead suggests that Christian parents should enjoy the Harry Potter stories but focus on their theological symbolism and message. Whether or not you share the view that it is wrong to censor the Harry Potter books, they have value by giving parents and teachers the opportunity offered by the series to increase their childrens interest in reading and writing and use the books to promote family discussions about issues that might otherwise not be discussed. Reading all the books in the series will allow you to make an informed decision about the Harry Potter books for your children. Participate in Banned Books Week activities, educate yourself about your communitys and school districts policies, and speak out as needed. More About Book Banning and Censorship All About Book Banning and Childrens BooksKids Book Censorship: The Who and WhyFrequently Challenged Books of the 21st Century

How to Get Rid of Christmas Tree Insects

How to Get Rid of Christmas Tree Insects Theres nothing like the smell of an evergreen tree to get you in the holiday spirit. But when you bring a live or cut Christmas tree indoors, some of the insects that have called your Christmas tree home might be joining you for the holiday season. Heres what you need to know about Christmas tree insects. Holiday Bugs Pose a Very Small Risk   You really dont need to worry about bringing any dangerous or destructive pests inside with your Christmas tree. Your home isnt an appropriate habitat for insects that inhabit coniferous forests, and they arent going to move in for good. Lacking food and adequate humidity to survive, most Christmas tree insects die soon after moving indoors. Just keep an eye out - if you find insects, they wont bite or sting and wont travel far from the tree. Insects that Live in Christmas Trees Coniferous trees attract a variety of small insects that may be visible only in large numbers. Aphids are common pests of evergreen trees, and the warm conditions of your home may cause overwintering aphid eggs to hatch. Some conifers host adelgids, which produce cottony secretions over their bodies. Mites and scale insects also inhabit Christmas trees. Larger Christmas tree insects include bark beetles and praying mantids. Adult mantids will be long gone from the cold temperatures, but mantid egg cases can hatch when introduced to the warmth of your home. If that happens, youll have hundreds of tiny mantids wandering in search of food. Christmas trees often harbor spiders, too. Check for Insects Outside Harmless or not, you probably dont want to spend the holiday season with bugs crawling around among the presents or flying into your windows trying to escape. You can minimize the chance of Christmas tree insects wandering around your living room, though, before you get it inside. When choosing a tree, inspect it carefully. Look for signs of aphids or other small insects. Theyll likely appear as little brown or red dots. Adelgids resemble a dusting of snow. And dont forget to examine the undersides of branches. Check each branch for egg cases, which could contain praying mantises. Prune out any you find because your warm home will feel like spring and induce eggs to hatch. Brown cocoons may harbor sawflies. Look at the trunk, too - small holes with sawdust trails are a sign of bark beetles. Reject any tree that seems heavily infested with pests. Before bringing the Christmas tree in the house, shake it vigorously to dislodge insects and spiders. Remove any bird nests, as these can contain mites. If you want to be sure that you found all the bugs, putting the tree in a five-gallon bucket of water in the garage for a few days can serve your peace of mind. If you do want to go after bugs found on the tree, dust it with diatomaceous earth, which dries out any bugs it comes into contact with. Wear eye and face protection when applying, as its actually pulverized rock that you dont want in your eyes or lungs. Shake the tree to remove excess before bringing it inside. Christmas Tree Insects Indoors Whatever you do, do not spray aerosol pesticides on your Christmas tree, as these products are flammable! Insects require humidity to live, and most will desiccate and die within a matter of days. Additionally, they will be unable to survive without food. It is much safer, and better for your health, to simply vacuum up any dead insects you find.

What are the key issues faced by first year undergraduates Essay

What are the key issues faced by first year undergraduates - Essay Example Therefore, the issues that this easy intend to discussed are in terms of personal challenges, academic challenges, environmental challenges and social challenges. Every issue will present basic idea with a practical example. Moreover, the essay will further detail these issues that students in first year face as well as the reasons why these issues have become an obstacle for their retention and integration in the university. To begin with, Personal challenges that first year students face at the University might cover several challenges but let us talk about loneliness. Loneliness is usually an emotional feeling that arises when someone feels that she/he has been left out by friends, usually in an entirely new environment. In addition, this is a quite common problem faced by most students in their first year at Universities when they leave their families so as to seek abroad studies in higher institution of learning. A practical and a classic example is when these first year student s feel Home and lovesick which normally happens when they are missing their family or someone so special to them in life, who is far away from them. Fortunately, this sort of emotional feeling can only last for few weeks or months after which they recover from it, as they will meet more friends in due time. Besides Personal challenges, there are environmental challenges first year student face that that threaten their retention and integration into the university system. Learning in a totally new environment is not that easy as one may think, as it demands adaptation to that new Environment which is not an easy task for everyone. The mode of learning and teaching methods may be different from those that these first year students at the University may have used while still in high schools. For instance, the using the library catalogue is a new idea to most students in first year. Additionally, there can be sluggish learning progression in a too crowded and noisy environment for the s tudent in first year at the University. A productive and a successful learning outcome requires a conducive and private environment and therefore most students in first year at the University find difficulties in learning in crowded environment, since it associate with numerous negative impacts; for example, lose interest in learning processes and lose of concentration. However, after a couple of semesters, the students in first year at the University need to have been adapted and familiarized with the system if at all they are eager to learn and not pull out from the university. The third issue is educational challenges these student in first year at the University face. This issue is always of concern as well to a good number of first year students. Academic side in institutions of higher learning are highly professional than High Schools contrary to what the majority of first year students may expect, therefore, a good number of them are never serious enough with their time manag ement. First year students are devoid of efficient time management skill which simply explains how a person plan and allocate her/his daily activities in accordance to time available. At times, first year students lose opportunities to obtain additional marks in their final assessment simply because they never planned well for their time at the university (Gibney, Murpy & O’sullivan, 2011). For example, they might fail to attend or be late to attend to labs and tutorial, which implies they will lose marks. Moreover, procrastination is always a toxic attitude towards time management. This attitude is referring to the behavior of keeping tasks like homework and assignment to be done in a later date. Consequently, this attitude of University`s first

The Struggle For Indigenous Rights In Latin America Research Paper

The Struggle For Indigenous Rights In Latin America - Research Paper Example Racial discrimination and ethnicity have hindered acquisition of well-paying jobs for the indigenous Latin Americans. In this regard, some indigenous residents have migrated to urban areas in the quest for better living standards (Kay 450). Unfortunately, the people who migrate to urban areas secure poorly paying jobs that cannot sustain the basic family needs. Apparently, lack of jobs and poor payment has resulted in poor living conditions for the indigenous people in Latin America. Most indigenous Latin Americans have no access to quality education. In addition, the existing education system does not reflect the cultural needs of the indigenous population. The cultural structure and beliefs face the danger of extinction. In fact, the future generation might not have the privilege to enjoy the rich indigenous culture and religious practices. Access to health facilities and services is a great challenge facing the indigenous people in Latin American (Gracey and King 67). The high poverty levels, ignorance, and discrimination have made access to good healthcare a challenge to the indigenous people. Many indigenous people die, and others fail to perform daily chores due to illnesses since they cannot access medication. Despite the challenges of education and job opportunities, the present condition of indigenous people Latin Americans are better than in the olden days. Posters and Leon 209, migration to the urban areas by some indigenous people can be applauded for opening new settlements in towns and enlightening the local people on economic matters. In addition, some people have been able to acquire quality education and have secured formal employment. The living standards of the indigenous Latin Americans have changed gradually over the years.

Belief systems :: essays research papers

Belief Systems The religious beliefs of people along the Silk Road at the beginning of the 1st century BCE were very different from what they would later become. When China defeated the nomadic Xiongnu confederation and pushed Chinese military control northwest as far as the Tarim Basin (in the 2nd century BCE), Buddhism was known in Central Asia but was not yet widespread in China nor had it reached elsewhere in East Asia. Christianity was still more than a century in the future. Daoism, in the strict sense of that term, connoting an organized religion with an ordained clergy and an established body of doctrine, would not appear in China for another three centuries. Islam would be more than seven centuries in the future. The peoples of the Silk Road in its early decades followed many different religions. In the Middle East, many people worshiped the gods and goddesses of the Greco-Roman pagan pantheon. Others were followers of the old religion of Egypt, especially the cult of Isis and Osiris. Jewish merchants and other settlers had spread beyond the borders of the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judea and had established their own places of worship in towns and cities throughout the region. Elsewhere in the Middle East, and especially in Persia and Central Asia, many people were adherents of Zoroastrianism, a religion founded by the Persian sage Zoroaster in the 6th century BCE. It posited a struggle between good and evil, light and darkness; its use of fire as the symbol of the purifying power of good was probably borrowed from the Brahmanic religion of ancient India. The Greek colonies of Central Asia that had been left behind after the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great had, by the 1st c entury BCE, largely converted from Greco-Roman paganism to Buddhism, a religion that would soon use the Silk Road to spread far and wide. In India, on side routes of the Silk Road that crossed the passes to the Indus Valley and beyond, the older religion of Brahmanism had given way to Hinduism and Buddhism; the former never spread far beyond India and Southeast Asia, while the latter eventually became worldwide in extent. Coming at last to China on our west-to-east survey of the ancient faith of the Silk Road, we .nd that rulers worshiped their own ancestors in great ancestral temples; they were joined by commoners in also worshiping deities of the earth, the four directions, mountains and rivers, and many others.

Range of sports injuries and their symptoms Essay

Physiological responses: damaged tissue, eg primary damage response, healing response, the clotting mechanism; the importance of scar tissue control in the re-modelling process; specific to injury, eg sprain/ strain (signs and symptoms of first, second and third degree), haematomas (inter/intra) Psychological responses: response to injury, eg anger, anxiety, depression, frustration, isolated from team mates; response to treatment and rehabilitation, eg anxiety, frustration, need for motivation, use of goal setting Marking Scheme Criteria P3 and P4 aim to address the issue of occurrence of sports injuries and the resulting symptoms, both physiologically and psychologically, as identified within the related content of the unit. If an explanation of both issues is detailed and contextualised sufficiently to the concept of sports injury then it is possible that grading criterion M2 and D1 (analysis) may also be achieved. It may be possible to assess this via the booklet  mentioned previously, or for learners to give a presentation on the issues, supported by a tutor witness statement/observation record to confirm achievement. Describe, explain and analyse the Physiological and Psychological responses common to sports injuries INTRODUCTION INJURY: Broken leg , (tibia and fibula) 1. David Buust 2.SPORTSPERSON: David Buust is a retired player who used to play for Coventry city football club from 1992-1996 he made 50 appearances for Coventry before getting tackled in the game against Manchester united two minutes into the game. Bussts injuries were so bad that there was a risk of his leg being amputated. But contacted MRSA which caused further damage to the muscle and tissue in his leg. After having 26 operations he was advised to retire by doctors. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES: (What are they) How the body responds when injury occurs it aims to repair and protect damages bones , muscles and tendons from further injury. For example if you had a cut it wold be the time it takes to heal. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES (What are they) The mental response of how an athlete deals with their injury and the way they respond to treatment and how the athlete copes with stress and possible depression that could result from the injury. Physiological responses Damaged tissue Describe, explain and analyse: A tissue can be damaged in many ways for example a athlete could be running and damage some tissue when they are running. The will then experience symptoms such as pain in the area where the tear is and the area would become red and could swell. An athlete could also damage tissue by overworking a particular area in the body for example if a person was in the gym and they overworked their biceps they could damage their tissue in their arm. Then they would have to rest until the tissue repairs itself. A damaged tissue would be treated by the RICE treatment method. David Busst response David Busst damaged his tissue in his right leg in a premier league match against Manchester united while playing for Coventry city on the 8th April 1996. The injury occurred when Busst went up for a corner and was sandwiched between to players who tackled him this left him with the bone in his leg ripping through his sock and effectively splitting his leg in two. This caused the Manchester united goalkeeper to throw up on the pitch. Busst`s tissue in his right leg was damaged even more while in hospital as he contracted MRSA which meant he risked having his leg amputated. This would mean that David Busst would have been in a lot of pain in the first few weeks of having the injury. The symptoms that David Busst would have had around his leg is redness and his leg being very painful to touch. Picture: The clotting mechanism Describe, explain and analyse: The blood clotting mechanism starts to work when we bleed. The blood clots start the healing process. Platelets are released by a chemical response when trauma such as a cut or a graze causes blood loss. The platelets clot quickly to as they stick to the blood vessels as the blood is sticky because of the platelets. The clotting mechanism is important as it is one of the parts of the healing phase. David Busst response The clotting mechanism would have started the moment David Busst broke his fibula and tibia. It would have started again to help him recover from his MRSA infection as it damaged his muscle and tissue so the blood clots from the blood mechanism would of got to work as quick as they could on David Bussts injury to limit the amount of injury that he would of suffered. Picture: This is blood clots forming The importance of scar tissue Describe, explain and analyse: The scar tissue restores the tissue on the exact spot of the injury for example if you had a deep cut like the diagram below where there has been a deep cut to the arm and the tissue has been restored as close a possible to its original state. Which leaves in a scar where the cut happened. Scar tissue will form as soon as an injury takes place . The repair phase occurs after a few hours of the injury occurring. David Buust response For example David Busst would have a significant scar tissue from where he broke his fibula and tibula as when he did break those bones they ripped through his skin meaning it was a compound break. It is likely that he would have a scar from where they bone went through the skin and a scar from where his leg was re straightened and put into his leg again. For example he may have a scar similar to the scar tissue in the diagram below but it may be very deep due to the extent of his injury. Picture: http://www.pennmedicine.org/encyclopedia/em_PrintPresentation.aspx?gcid=100098&ptid=3 The diagram highlights that the arm has been cut but has heal to the best of its ability. Specific to injury: (Haematomas (inter/intra)181 177 Describe, explain and analyse: There are two types of haematoma. The first type intramuscular haematoma this is where bleeding occurs within the compartment of the muscle but does not seep into any surrounding tissue. The second type intramuscular haematoma is where blood escapes into surrounding areas such as muscles or tissue and stays in that muscle or part of the body. David Bussts response David Busst would have had a Haematoma around the same size as the Haematoma in the diagram below as the injury was so severe it caused a lot of swelling and bruising causing a lot of internal bleeding as his leg was broken compundly meaning that blood would of seeped out of his leg meaning that he had a intramuscular haematoma since he was bleeding out and also a intramuscular haematoma as there would have been significant haematoma in his muscles. Which would of made it very uncomfortable for him to bear during the early stages of his injury. Picture: http://ic.steadyhealth.com/signs_and_treatment_for_hematoma.html David Buust would of suffered similar Hematoma due to the size of his injury. http://www.bmwmoa.org/forum/showthread.php?28029-Show-us-your-scars! Psychological responses 177/178 Describe, explain and analyse the response to injury, treatment and rehabilitation, including; anger; anxiety, depression; frustration;  isolation, need for motivation and goal setting. You could use a famous sports person and address all these issues from their perspective. When injury occurs the psychological response is divided into three stages. The first stage is when the injury actually occurs the second stage is then the recovery period where the injured individual begins rehab to get them back into sport. Then finally the third stage is where the athlete starts training and is able to play their sport again competively. Stage one 1. When David Busst experienced his injury the first thoughts he would of experienced the trauma of having such a horrific injury being inflicted on him and the shock of actually seeing his leg in a bad state and he would be very scared as he would be concerned as they injury was very serious and career threatening. David would also be very angry with the players that tackled him as the fact both players went for the same leg (as seen in the picture below) causing a serious injury. He would also be very frustrated that the injury has occurred to him since he it happened in a top flight game where he would have looked to show off his ability. http://www.goal.com/hk/slideshow/1630 http://www.taringa.net/posts/deportes/16564778/Un-tipo-con-mala-suerte-David-Busst.html Due to the nature of his injury David Busst would have been very traumatised by the state of his leg and obviously worried about his future in football. Stage two 2. The second stage is the recovery period this would have been very lengthy for David Busst due to the severity of his injury it his rehab would have been around 6 months to make sure that he was in the right frame of mind to try and get back into football. He will be scared and anxious as he had little chance of making a full comeback to football meaning that if he didn`t his career would be over. David Busst would have been of been isolated due to the fact that his team mates were training and he wasn`t. He could of become depressed while waiting to get back into football.As he was  waiting on the sidelines Stage three 3. This is where the player makes their comeback into the sport for example a footballer would make their recover back to football by training with the team and then playing for the reserve team and then being eased on by the manager of the team by playing as a substitute then starting the game the following week. David Busst would have lacked motivation to get into football as he knew that there was little chance of him making a full comeback to due to severity of his injury. When making his full comeback David Buust was approached by his doctor and advised to retire as because of the injury he suffered was so severe he would of risked not walking unaided again as the injury made his the leg very weak. There would have been goals for him to slowly achieve if the injury wasn’t as bad but since he was at risk of becoming disabled he retired so he could save the use of his leg. When he retired Coventry would had a psychiatrist helping me through coming to terms with his career being over and helping him avoid depression and help plan his future after football.